The Kopais lake, which once spread over a large
area, was situated at an altitude of 100 m. in the Kopais basin of the Boeotian
prefecture of Central Greece. The lake - nowadays drained - occupied the deeper part
of the basin in the southern part of the valleys of Chaeronea and Orchomenos, and was formed by the water flowing down from Mount Chlomos in Locris, Mount
Parnassus and Mount Helicon, and it was fed by the Cephissus, Melas, Ercyna rivers
as well as other smaller rivulets. The Cephissus river runs through a large, fertile
plain consisting of three smaller basins (Davlia, Amphiclea and Elatea) before
ending in the southern part of the Copaic basin; the Melas river runs
eastward in the northern section of the basin. The lake, with a maximum depth
of some 3 m, covered an area of approximately 62,500 acres at its greatest,
shrinking to some 37,500 acres during periods of drought.
The Kopais basin was permanently drained in 1931, and converted into the
well-irrigated plain, which is now one of central Greece's most fertile
agricultural areas. From epigraphic evidence, it is known that drainage
programs were undertaken in this area in Classical Greek and Roman times as
well. The latter drain of Kopais has also revealed that the basin was also drained in
Late Mycenaean times (14th century BC), a project that is believed to have been
carried out by the Minyans, the habitats of Orchomenos.
The Sarakenos Cave and the Palaeoenvironment in the Kopais Basin
Kopais is a natural basin in the northeast part of Boeotia created by a tectonic activity some 10 million years ago. The area around the basin is a highly
karstic landscape. Until the recent past, a big lake, differentiated from time
to time by size, was covering the actual plain. Because of its importance as a
natural karstic basin, Kopais has been the subject of extensive
palaeoenvironmental studies since the 1970s.
During the Late Upper Palaeolithic
the Kopais had a vegetation typical of an open steppe and a dry and cold
climate (Artemisia, Graminae and Chenopods). The Pleistocene - Holocene
transition is recorded in diagrams with the forest expansion (Quercus,
Juniperus, Pistacia and Ephedra). At layers that correspond to 4000-3000 BC
quercus drops, possibly due to deforestation.
Analysis of the grain of the coring samples suggests that there was
fluctuation in the lake levels during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene.
There are also indications that the lake level dropped after 4000 and until
2500 BC. The first drainage works are possible to have taken place in the early
2nd millennium BC, under the aim to convert a big area of the lake into arable
land.
Since 1994 in the Kopais area we started a project with the aim to
survey systematically the karstic formations all around the rocky boundaries of
the basin. During this project we have located, recorded and mapped almost all
the caves and rock shelters in the basin. After having graded our priorities for excavation, we decided that the
most suitable cave for excavation was the cave of Sarakenos. This is the
biggest karstic formation in the area found today much higher than the level of
the plain and the road. Three excavated Trenches revealed Middle,
Early Helladic and Neolithic layers. The last layer above the bedrock yielded
lithic finds and animal bones that are dated to the Upper Palaeolithic
(Aurignacian period).
Soil and charcoal samples, as well as charred seeds from the cave, offered information about the palaeoenvironment of the Kopais basin from the Palaeolithic
to the Middle Bronze Age. The palynological assemblages that have been studied
from the Sarakenos deposit showed the presence of Pine and Quercus and an increase of
Leguminosae during the transition from LN I to the LN II (second half
of the 5th mill. BC). The same species are present with small fluctuations
during the Late Neolithic II and the EH II. In general from the second half of
the 5th mill. and until the 2nd mill. BC
the plant species recorded in the cave in pollen diagrams showing the clear impact of
the humans on the environment of the Kopais basin.
The formation of the lake was the outcome of a tectonic movement that took
place during the Pliocene and Pleistocene Eras, and the dissolution of the
calcareous rock caused by underground waters. From a geological point of view,
the most prevalent rock is limestone, dating from the Mesozoic Era. In the
past, the water from the lake would be canalized towards the sea by means of an
underground network of canals through the calcareous rock. Due to the progress
of sedimentation, the lake was becoming very shallow and dry durin the summer
season, conveying a sense of seasonal differentiation between a lake and a
swamp.
Due to its importance as a natural karstic basin, the Kopais has been
the subject of extensive palaeoenvironmental studies since the 1970s (e.g.
Greig and Turner, who have published detailed pollen diagrams). In 1983, two new
cores were made that offered information on the vegetation from the Late Upper
Palaeolithic onwards. During the Late Upper Palaeolithic period, the Kopais had
vegetation typical of an open steppe and a dry and cold climate (Artemisia,
Graminae and Chenopods). The Pleistocene-Holocene transition is recorded in the
diagrams with the forest expansion (Quercus, Juniperus, Pistacia and Ephedra). At
layers that correspond to 4000-3000 BC, the quercus disappears, possibly due to
deforestation. Analysis of the grain of the coring samples suggest that there
was also fluctuation in the lake levels during the Late Pleistocene and Early
Holocene Eras. There are also indications that the lake level dropped between
4000 BC and 2500 BC.
Prior Research in the Area
Since the beginning of the century, two important Neolithic sites in the
Cephissus river valley have been discovered and excavated, namely Elateia and
Chaeronea. Due to its morphology it has been assumed that, during the
Pleistocene, this valley must have been a place of aggregation for animals, and
perhaps an area of Palaeolithic occupation. In 1980 research conducted by a
Canadian team in two caves near Davlia and Amphiclea yielded a few surface
finds of possible Palaeolithic date. Larger quantities of chopped flint were
also discovered in another two caves located in the northwest part of the
Kopais basin on the north side of the Lebadeia-Chaeronea road.
During the 2nd war, German archaeologists excavated the cave of Seidi in the
southern part of the Kopais near Aliartus and reported Upper Palaeolithic finds.
Since the research in the cave was rather hasty and conducted using
old-fashioned methods of recovery, no evidence regarding the fauna, vegetation
and palaeoeconomy has been reported. In the same area, the Canadian team
located a rock shelter (today used as a pen), where there was found chopped
flint.
In the 1960s, surface research conducted around the Kopais basin yielded
some Neolithic and Early Helladic sites; in addition rescue excavations in two
caves in the area were undertaken, the results of which, however, are unknown.
The Kopais Archaeological Project
Since 1994, we have been working on a project in the Kopais area with
the aim of systematically surveying the karstic formations in the rocky basins
of the entire basin. During this project we have located, recorded and mapped a
large number of caves and rock shelters. A large obstacle to our research has
been the present-day use of some of these as sheep-pens. In these cases it is
literally impossible to discover any surface finds.
The larger concentration of caves is observed in the limestone
boundaries in the eastern section of the basin. In the area between Acraiphnion
and Aliartus we have explored and mapped some 23 caves, most of which are of a
low elevation, near the level of what once was the lakeshore. Neolithic pottery
has been discovered in a cave and in two nearby open air locations. In the
south and west part of the basin, there are a few caves. In some of the rock
shelters a few surface chipped flints dating probably to the Palaeolithic age
have been found, and five Neolithic settlements have been located in the
eastern part of the valley.
In the area to the west of Acraiphnion, the cave of Sarakenos and
another 15 smaller caves have been recorded at a low elevation. In the area to
the south of Glas, we have recorded 10 caves and rock shelters, but without
evidence of prehistoric occupation. We have noticed that the presence or
absence of prehistoric finds more often relates to the presence of, and changing
levels of the water. If we take into account that during the Late Pleistocene
and Early Holocene the lake was quite deep, we must assume that those caves
found today at a low elevation right where the level of the present-day plain
is, must have been either unsuitable for occupation or used only occasionally
during low lake levels.
In the northern part of the basin there are many rock shelters as well
as a number of important Neolithic sites such as Kastro and Stroviki. In
Baroutospilia and in another small cave nearby, we have recovered obsidian and
flint flakes.
After having established the excavation priorities, the archaeologists
decided that the most suitable cave for excavation was Sarakenos. It is located
at the higher levels of the former lake and is the largest karstic formation in
the area, found today much higher than the level of the plain and above the
road. The cave has a wide entrance, which provides good light in the chamber
and an excellent view toward the lake. Like other sites in the area, the cave
was used as a sheep-pen in the recent past, hence significant amounts of dung
cover the floor. Archaeological investigation of this cave began in the early
1970s under the direction of Spyropoulos, and it had yielded finds of different
chronological periods, but the publication of this material, however, never was
realized.
The systematic excavation of this site was a part of the Kopais Project,
initiated in 1994, and was to establish a chronological sequence for the
development of the cave and the acknowledgement of economic models in diverse
periods; this program, which still continues, comprises not only research at
the Sarakenos cave but also survey expeditions to numerous other caves in the
region.
An assemblage of excellent stratigraphic data inside the cave has
offered a succession of distinct cultural phases, dating from the Middle
Palaeolithic to the Middle Helladic, when the cave was abandoned for as yet
unknown reasons (Sampson 2000). It is probable that the drainage of the lake,
which may have been started at the end of the Middle Helladic period, was the
reason for the abandonment of the cave.
The Palaeolithic layer in trench B is thin and only covers the bedrock,
belonging to the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic (Aurignacian period). The
occurrence in this stratum as stone debris fallen from the roof attests to cold
climatic phases corresponding to the Upper Palaeolithic period. The lowest
stratum resting on the solid rock should be dated to the beginning of the Upper
or the end of the Middle Palaeolithic period, judging from the stone industry
that comprises blade-type implements of the Aurignacian and the Mousterian
period. Small charcoal particles originating from the upper part of the
Palaeolithic deposit have been dated by a Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit at a
laboratory in Oxford and yielded an age fixed to 12345+/-70 BP (13100-12150
BC).
A sterile layer above contains only microfauna showing a long period of
abandonment of the site, while it contains a huge concentration of ash and
burnings. The presence of man at some chronological moment is certain,
nevertheless without the presence of any specific finds. The layers of burnt
material are evident of man's entrance into the cave towards the end of the
Palaeolithic or the beginning of the Mesolithic Age, as proven by three
absolute dates provided by charcoal samples from this stratum (DEM-1206, 9233+/-30
BP or 8530-8340 BC; DEM-1209, 9177+/-31 BP or 8450-8290 BC; and DEM-1210,
9230+/-30 BP or 8530-9340 BC). The first and third examples come from the same
hearth, with a characteristic absolute precision. The second example comes from
another hearth and is slightly more recent. These ages are contemporaneous to
the earliest Mesolithic phase of the Cyclops Cave (Sampson 1998). A sample of
the burnt material from the same hearth dated with the method of Optical
Thermoluminescence offered an analogous age of 10110+/- 750 BP.
The earliest phase of Neolithic occupation should be roughly put in the
second half of the 7th millennium BC (Early Neolithic). From this phase comes
fine painted ware with red on white patterns, reminding us of a similar pattern
from Youra and Ayios Petros in the Northern Sporades (Sampson 1998), with
geometric motifs on a canvas-like background. The stratum of MN revealed a
large amount of pottery, especially the red on white variety, which is very
similar to the contemporary pottery from Elateia and Chaeronea (being prepared
for publication by H. Tzavella-Evjen) as well as the Middle Neolithic ware from
Euboea (Sampson 1996-1998).
There is normal sequence to the next phase, called Late Neolithic Ia (5300-4800
BC), characterized by a dark and gray monochrome pottery of very high quality.
This pottery is very similar to the Tsangli-Arapi ware (Milojcic &
Hauptmann 1969), which shows an advanced ceramic technology, mainly in the
firing technique. There is also in abundance painted pottery spread all over Greece
in Late Neolithic Ia-Ib.
The Late Neolithic Ia phase is characterized by more intensive
occupation: an extended floor that bore the holes of piles, possibly shows that
partitions were built inside the cave as spatial arrangement for diverse
functions.
The next phase (Late Neolithic Ib, 4800-4200 BC) indicates an intense
occupation in the cave as well as in others such as Tharrounia in Euboea
(Sampson 1993), Kastria in Kalavryta (Sampson 1997), Ayia Triada in Karystos,
the Cave of Cyclops at Youra (Sampson 1998, 2005), etc. The pottery bears
similarities to other wares of Central Greece, Euboea (Sampson 1981), and the
Aegean. From this horizon comes an amount of clay and marble figurines, which
have parallels in LN of Euboea and the Ftelia on Mykonos in the Cyclades
(Sampson 2002). The last Neolithic phase (Late Neolithic II, 4200-3300 BC) is
well represented in Sarakenos, especially the latter part, which is not frequent
in caves (Sampson et al. 1998). In the beginning of this phase an amount of excellent
painted pottery has its origin in the Gonia area in the Northern Peloponnese
(Blegen 1931). A grave of this period with intact vases was found in the
vicinity of the cave and means that a permanent settlement existed at the site.
From the Neolithic layers a large amount of stone and bone artifacts, as well
as clay and marble figurines, has been unearthed.
Many intact vases were found in the stratum of the Early Helladic II
period, which shows a short interval of occupation. Two different phases of
Middle Helladic occupation have been discovered with intense storing activities
in pithoid vases and in pits covered with clay, which were dug into the Early
Helladic and Neolithic strata.
The Economy of the Site
Soil and charcoal samples as well as charred seeds from the cave provide
us with information about the palaeoenvironment in the Kopais basin from the Palaeolithic
to the Middle Copper Age. The palynological assemblages that have been studied
from the Sarakenos deposit (Sampson & Ioakeim 2002) show presence of Pine
and Quercus and an increase of Leguminosae during the transition from Late
Neolithic I to the Late Neolithic II (second half of the 5th millennium BC). The
same species are present with small fluctuations during the Late Neolithic II
and Early Helladic II. In general, from the second half of the 5th millennium
until the 2nd millennium BC the plant species recorded in the cave pollen
diagrams show the clear impact of humans on the environment of the Kopais
basin. Within the late Neolithic strata (4th millennium BC) large quantities of
carbonized seeds found on the floor testify to cereal and legume cultivation in
the Kopais region. This indicates that the species was
stored in that place. The study presented here is the first archaeobotanical
investigation of the site. The main species recovered was einkorn. Triticum
monococcum is a very resistant wheat and can grow on poor soils without manure,
but the basin of the Kopais Lake cannot be considered as a region with poor
soils. One could say that this "specialization" in einkorn may
represent a short sort of cultural traditionalism as was proposed by Sarpaki
(1995) in the case of the Balomenos Toumba at Chaeronea, where substantial
amounts of Triticum monococcum were also discovered. The wild ancestor of the
species would be Triticum boeoticum - a native element of the Greek landscape.
Conclusions
The research in the area suggests that the evidence for Palaeolithic
settlement in the Kopais basin is very patchy. Two caves - Seidi and Sarakenos
- contain Upper Palaeolithic finds, while some other caves and rock shelters
examined in the basin and around it yielded some probable Palaeolithic remains.
The issue is going to be clarified through excavations in some of these sites.
The absence, however, of Middle Palaeolithic remains in this area, with the
exception of the Sarakenos Cave, is striking, especially since there are
several open air sites from this period in nearby Euboea. This may probably be
due to palaeogeographical or palaeoclimatic reasons.
Unlike the Palaeolithic, during the
Neolithic period and the Copper Age the human occupation in the Kopais basin
appears to be present both in open air and in cave sites. From this period there are archaeological evidence from the Sarakenos Cave (Sampson 2014) of
regular exploitation of the aquatic resources (fishes & shells), posibly from settlements existed in certain places around the lake, the type of lake
settlements like those of Kastoria (Chourmouziades 2002) and the Xynias Lake (Sampson 1980).
